TURKEY
Göbeklitepe (Pre-Pottery Neolithic, 9600-7300 BCE)
Göbeklitepe is the world’s oldest known religious sanctuary, predating agriculture and permanent settlements. Located in southeastern Turkey, its massive T-shaped stone pillars, some over 5 meters tall, are arranged in circular enclosures. These pillars are decorated with intricate carvings of animals such as foxes, snakes, and vultures, suggesting ritualistic significance.
The discovery of Göbeklitepe challenged long-held theories about early civilization, indicating that complex social structures and spiritual beliefs may have emerged before farming. There are no signs of permanent dwellings, reinforcing the idea that it served as a ceremonial center rather than a settlement.
Despite being abandoned around 7300 BCE, Göbeklitepe provides invaluable insight into prehistoric societies. Its sophisticated construction techniques and symbolic artwork highlight the cognitive and social capabilities of early humans, making it a key site in understanding the transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian societies.
Çatalhöyük (Neolithic, 7500-5700 BCE)
Çatalhöyük is one of the earliest known urban centers, showcasing an advanced Neolithic society. Located in central Anatolia, the settlement consists of tightly packed mudbrick houses with no streets; residents accessed their homes through rooftop openings. This unique architectural style provided protection and reinforced communal living.
The interiors of the houses feature wall paintings, sculptures, and burial sites beneath the floors, revealing early artistic expression and spiritual practices. Artifacts suggest a belief in fertility goddesses and ancestor worship, with elaborate figurines and symbolic murals depicting bulls and hunting scenes.
Çatalhöyük’s economy relied on farming, animal domestication, and trade, marking a transition from a purely hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The settlement's layout and artifacts provide crucial insights into social organization, gender roles, and the development of early urban life.
Pinara (Lycian, 5th century BCE - Roman period)
Pinara was an important city in ancient Lycia, situated in a mountainous landscape that made it both defensible and picturesque. The city’s name, meaning "round," likely refers to the natural shape of the acropolis, which was a key feature of its fortifications.
The site is famous for its rock-cut tombs, particularly the "honeycomb" necropolis, where numerous Lycian tombs were carved directly into the cliffs. The city also contained a well-preserved theater, agora, and a temple dedicated to Athena, reflecting Greek influences alongside Lycian traditions.
Though it declined under Roman rule, Pinara remains one of the best-preserved Lycian cities, offering insight into Lycian religious beliefs and burial customs. Its dramatic setting and archaeological remains make it a significant historical and cultural site.
Myra (Lycian to Byzantine, 5th century BCE - 12th century CE)
Myra was a major Lycian city, later flourishing under Roman and Byzantine rule. It is best known for its rock-cut tombs carved into cliffs, resembling multi-story houses, and its impressive Greco-Roman theater.
The city gained religious significance in the 4th century CE as the home of St. Nicholas, the inspiration for Santa Claus. As Bishop of Myra, he was known for his generosity, and his church became an important pilgrimage site in the Byzantine era.
Abandoned due to flooding and invasions, Myra remains an archaeological treasure, offering insights into Lycian burial customs, Roman architecture, and early Christian heritage.
Perge Ancient City (Hellenistic to Roman, 4th century BCE - 7th century CE)
Perge was a thriving Greco-Roman city in ancient Pamphylia, renowned for its impressive urban planning and grand architectural structures. Founded during the Hellenistic period, it flourished under Roman rule, becoming a major center of culture and commerce.
The city is best known for its colonnaded main street, an enormous stadium that could hold over 12,000 spectators, and well-preserved Roman baths. Its theater and agora (marketplace) reflect the city's prosperity and importance in trade networks.
Perge is also notable for its role in early Christianity, as St. Paul is said to have visited the city on his missionary journeys. Despite its decline in the Byzantine period, its remains offer a vivid glimpse into Roman urban life and architectural achievements.
Laodicea (Hellenistic to Byzantine, 3rd century BCE - 7th century CE)
Laodicea was an important trade and religious center in western Anatolia, strategically positioned on major trade routes. Founded during the Hellenistic period, it flourished under Roman rule, becoming a wealthy city known for its textile production and banking system.
The city's ruins include a grand theater, temples, baths, and a stadium, reflecting its affluence. Laodicea is also significant in early Christian history, as one of the seven churches mentioned in the Book of Revelation. Its large church ruins suggest it played a key role in the spread of Christianity.
Frequent earthquakes led to its decline, and it was eventually abandoned. Today, ongoing excavations continue to reveal its architectural splendor, making it an important site for understanding ancient urban life and commerce.
Hierapolis (Hellenistic to Byzantine, 3rd century BCE - 7th century CE)
Hierapolis, located near modern Pamukkale, was an ancient spa city famed for its thermal springs and healing centers. Established in the Hellenistic era, it became a prominent Roman resort town, attracting visitors seeking the therapeutic benefits of its mineral-rich waters.
The city’s well-preserved ruins include an enormous theater, a colonnaded street, temples, and the largest Necropolis (cemetery) in Anatolia. The hot springs, which still flow today, formed the famous white travertine terraces of Pamukkale.
Hierapolis was also an important Christian center, believed to be the burial site of St. Philip. Abandoned after earthquakes in the medieval period, the city remains a UNESCO World Heritage site, offering a fascinating look at Roman leisure culture and religious history.
Derinkuyu Underground City (Byzantine, 6th-10th centuries CE)
Derinkuyu is the largest and deepest of Cappadocia’s underground cities, carved into soft volcanic rock. This multi-level refuge, extending over 85 meters deep, was designed to protect its inhabitants from invasions, particularly during Byzantine times when Christian communities sought shelter.
The city had an intricate ventilation system, water wells, and tunnels connecting it to other underground settlements. Its facilities included homes, storage areas, stables, kitchens, schools, and churches, supporting thousands of people for extended periods. Rolling stone doors could be sealed from the inside to block intruders, demonstrating advanced defensive planning.
Although its origins may date back to the Hittites or Phrygians, Derinkuyu reached its peak use during the Byzantine era. It remains one of the most impressive examples of subterranean architecture, reflecting the ingenuity and resilience of past civilizations.
Acropolis of Anavarza (Roman to Byzantine, 1st century CE - 11th century CE)
Anavarza was a key city in ancient Cilicia, known for its strategic location and military importance. The acropolis, perched on a rocky outcrop, offered strong natural defenses, while the city below housed grand Roman and Byzantine structures.
The ruins include a colossal triumphal arch, a large bath complex, and an extensive road network. The city thrived under Roman rule and continued to be a regional power during the Byzantine and medieval periods.
Despite repeated attacks from Arab forces in the 8th-10th centuries, Anavarza remained an important fortress until the Crusades. Today, its ruins stand as a testament to its historical significance and architectural grandeur.